Guest Post : The Jurisdiction of Indian Courts in International Commercial Arbitration

by Raj R. Panchmatia, Associate Partner at Khaitan & Co.

Modern international commercial contracts usually tend to have arbitration as their preferred mode of dispute resolution. One can attribute this largely – other than its less palpable advantages such as party autonomy, confidentiality, venue etc – to the fact that it is relatively faster. However, till a recent change, this was subject to a caveat, for, as an eminent jurist observed, “In the Indian legal system, there is ample – sometimes excessive – due process; and one has to be patient and persevering.”

The recent change was the result of a judgement, dated September 6, 2012, of a Constitution Bench of the Supreme Court of India in the case of Bharat Aluminium Co v Kaiser Aluminium Technical Services Inc (BALCO v Kaiser), which clarified the scope of jurisdiction of Indian Courts in international commercial arbitration. The Constitution Bench overruled the full bench decision of the Supreme Court in Bhatia International v Bulk Trading S A and Anr, (2002) 4 SCC 105) (Bhatia International) and the division bench decision of the Supreme Court, which followedBhatia International, in Venture Global Engineering v Satyam Computer Services Ltd and Anr, (2008) 1 Scale 214) (Venture Global Engineering). In Bhatia International and Venture Global Engineering the Supreme Court had held that Indian Courts could interfere to the fullest extent allowed by Part I of the Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996 (Act) even when the seat of arbitration was outside India. 

Law Prior to BALCO v Kaiser

The Act, which was inter alia enacted to consolidate and amend the law relating to domestic arbitration, international commercial arbitration and enforcement of foreign arbitral awards, was made on the basis of the UNCITRAL Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration, with a stated objective of excluding judicial interference in arbitrations. Further, the Act, which was divided into four parts, provided in Section 2 (2) that Part I, entitled “Arbitration”, will apply where the seat of arbitration is in India – thus begging the question of whether the provisions dealing with interim measures by court (Section 9 of the Act), and setting aside arbitral awards (Section 34), contained in Part I of the Act, could be resorted to if the seat of the arbitration was outside India.

The position of law prior to BALCO v Kaiser has been formulated by the Supreme Court in several of its judgments. The very first judgment that laid down the principles governing international commercial arbitration was that of Bhatia International. The issue for consideration before the Supreme Court was whether an application under Section 9 of the Act was maintainable in a foreign seat arbitration.

In what was regarded as a judgement that is in the teeth of the Act, the Supreme Court held that interim reliefs could be granted to a foreign party in India, since the provisions of Part I of the Act would apply to all arbitrations and related proceedings held outside India. While holding that Part I of the Act would compulsorily apply to arbitrations held in India, and parties would be allowed to deviate only from the derogable provisions of said Part I to the extent permitted by the Act, the Court further held that in the case of an international commercial arbitration with its seat outside India, provisions of Part I of the Act would apply unless the parties had expressly or impliedly excluded all or any of its provisions.

The decision in Bhatia International was followed in the later judgment of Venture Global Engineering. The issue for consideration before the Supreme Court in Venture Global Engineering was whether an aggrieved party to a foreign seat arbitration, is entitled to challenge a foreign award in terms of Section 34 of the Act. The Supreme Court held in the affirmative.

Another significant decision which could impact the extent of judicial interference in arbitration, is that of a single judge bench of the Supreme Court in TDM Infrastructure Private Limited v UE Development Private Limited (2008) 14 SCC 271) (TDM Infrastructure). In this case, the Supreme Court observed that Section 28, which inter alia provides that Indian law would apply to the substance of the dispute where place of arbitration is India and parties to the arbitration are Indian, was “imperative” in character. With reference to the provision, it stated that the “intention of the legislature appears to be clear that Indian nationals should not be permitted to derogate from Indian law. This is part of the public policy of the country”. Thus when parties to an arbitration agreement were Indian, the merits of the dispute must be decided in accordance with Indian law.

Thereafter in 2011, came the judgment in Yograj Infrastructure Ltd v Ssang Yong Engineering and Construction Co Ltd (AIR 2011 SC 3517) (Yograj), wherein a division bench of the Supreme Court distinguished the decision rendered in Bhatia International on the basis that the parties had expressly chosen a foreign place as the seat of the arbitration and the rules of a foreign institution to apply to the arbitral process. The legal issue in question was the maintainability of an appeal under Section 37(2) of the Act. The agreement between the parties, one Indian party and the other Korean, was to be conducted in Singapore, in accordance with the Singapore International Arbitration (SIAC) Rules. The governing law of the agreement was Indian law.

The Supreme Court held that Part I of the Act would not be applicable to the arbitration agreement, since the parties had expressly chosen the SIAC Rules as the curial law. The parties were thus bound by Rule 32 of the SIAC Rules that makes Singaporean arbitration law applicable to arbitrations with their seat in Singapore.

The way to BALCO v Kaiser

Given the state of the existing Indian law on international commercial arbitration, every award that was passed outside India became open to challenge in India. This resulted in excessive interference by Indian courts in arbitration that was held outside India (despite the stated objective of the Act and the express provisions of Section 5 of the Act). Several parties started approaching Indian courts for interim reliefs that only delayed and caused hindrances to the smooth conduct and operation of the arbitration proceedings held outside India, thereby defeating the very purpose of choosing arbitration as a favourable option for dispute resolution. BALCO v Kaiser came up for final hearing, at this point of time.[5]

BALCO v Kaiser

In a staggering decision that spawned over a hundred and seventy pages, five judges of the Supreme Court inBALCO v Kaiser unanimously held that Part I of the Act would only apply to arbitrations whose seat was in India. The court reasoned as follows:

a. The Act has adopted the territoriality principle, which emphasizes on the seat of arbitration as opposed to the nationality of parties for the ascertainment of jurisdiction.

b.Part I of the Act and Part II of the Act are mutually exclusive. Part I applies to an award made in India, whether it is rendered in a domestic arbitration or whether it is domestically rendered in an international commercial arbitration (international award). Part II of the Act, applies to only certain foreign awards.

c. Section 2(2) lays down the scope of Part I of the Act by stating that “This Part shall apply where the place of arbitration is in India”. The absence of the word ‘only’ in Section 2(2) does not indicate that Part I was also applicable to arbitrations where the seat was outside India.

d.The ‘seat’ of the arbitration must be distinguished from the ‘venue’ of the arbitration. The seat of arbitration is location by law and the venue of arbitration is location by fact.

e.If parties expressly choose the Act as the law governing the arbitration proceedings, only those provisions of law which are concerned with the internal conduct of the arbitration and are not inconsistent with the foreign procedural law would be applicable to the arbitral proceedings. Hence, Part I would not apply as it applies only to arbitrations held in India.

f. Non-applicability of Part I to foreign seat arbitrations would not create a lacunae with respect to awards which were not made pursuant to either the Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards, 1958 (The New York Convention) or the Protocol on Arbitration Clauses, 1923 and The Convention on the Execution of Foreign Arbitral Awards, 1927 (The Geneva Convention). Parliament had intentionally not included the aforesaid categories of awards within the definition of ‘foreign award’ in Section 44 and Section 53 of the Act since these awards were not included in the three statutes that were consolidated by the Act.

g. Section 28(1)(a) makes it clear that in an arbitration under Part I of the Act to which Section 2(1)(f)[6] does not apply, the dispute has to be resolved using the substantive law applicable to the contract. This ensures that two or more Indian parties do not circumvent the substantive Indian law by resorting to arbitration. On the other hand, if such arbitration is an international commercial arbitration under Part I of the Act within the meaning of Section 2(1)(f) of the Act, then the parties would be free to agree on any substantive law of their choice.

h.Section 9 of the Act must be interpreted in the same way as any other provision of Part I of the Act and so parties to a foreign seat arbitration agreement would not be entitled to relief under Section 9 of the Act.

i.. Non applicability of Part I of the Act to a foreign seat arbitration agreement would not leave the parties to the same ‘remedy-less’ as once parties voluntarily choose the seat of the arbitration to be outside India, they have impliedly accepted the necessary incidents and consequences of such a choice.

j. In a foreign seat arbitration, an inter-parte suit in India for interim relief pending arbitration would not be maintainable even if it is limited to the purpose of protecting the subject matter of the arbitration. In order to obtain an injunction, the existence of a suit seeking final relief, based on a recognised cause of action, is a prerequisite.

k. Ordinarily, international arbitration law recognises the competence of courts of two nations to set aside or suspend an award: the courts in the country where the seat of arbitration is located (first alternative) and the courts of the country whose laws govern the arbitral proceeding (second alternative). The power to suspend or annul an award primarily vests in the courts of the first alternative country, the second alternative country being available only in the event of failure of the first alternative. However, in the context of India, it must be noted that the Act does not confer any jurisdiction on Indian courts to set aside an international commercial award made outside India. This is because under the Act, the power to annul an arbitral award is only provided in Section 34 of the Act. Section 34 however is contained in Part I and is, therefore, limited in its applicability to awards made in India.

The Way Forward

The Supreme Court’s judgment in BALCO v Kaiser reinforces the objective of international commercial arbitration by ensuring minimal legal intervention in arbitral proceedings conducted outside of India. It clarifies the much debated position of law on the applicability of Part I of the Act to an arbitration held outside India. Till the judgment in BALCO vKaiser was rendered, determining whether an arbitration clause had impliedly or expressly excluded Part I of the Act, in accordance with the ruling in Bhatia International, remained a highly subjective test, often resulting in prolonged proceedings. However, some issues remain unresolved.

The remedies available to an Indian party

The Supreme Court ruling, by emphasizing on the sanctity of the seat of the arbitration, has reinforced a governing principle of arbitration - that of respecting parties’ autonomy.

The decision will have a major impact on the way arbitration agreements are drafted. Till now, parties to an arbitration agreement could choose a foreign seat and also state that notwithstanding the choice of the seat, recourse to provisions contained in Part I of the Act would be permitted. Now, express introduction of such exception will also not make any of the provisions of Part I applicable.

Theoretically, a natural conclusion of the judgment should be that Indian parties will choose to make India the seat of their arbitration in future international commercial arbitration agreements, in order to ensure recourse to Indian courts for interim reliefs or for challenging the award. However, whether Indian parties will have the bargaining power to ensure that India is made the seat in an international commercial arbitration agreement is a moot point. It also remains to be seen how many Indian parties will have the resources to initiate and continue legal proceedings in a foreign country. Given these considerations, arguably some Indian parties may have still been left “remedy-less”.

Choice of proper law of Contract in an agreement between two Indian parties

The issue that arose after TDM Infrastructure was whether the Supreme Court’s observation on the applicability of Indian law to arbitrations between Indian parties would extend to such arbitrations if they were held outside India.

In TDM Infrastructure the seat of arbitration was in India and the observation was made only with reference to Section 28(1)(a), a pre-condition of whose application is that the “place of arbitration is situate in India”. However, it can be argued that the “public policy” of India would apply to Indian parties even if they were to choose to arbitrate outside of India. Furthermore, since TDM Infrastructure was rendered when the judgment in Bhatia International was still good law, even when the arbitration clause specified a foreign country as the seat of the arbitration, if on the basis of the test in Bhatia International application of Part I was found to not be excluded, Section 28 of the Act would have applied to the arbitration. Therefore, in such a situation as well, two Indian parties could have been compelled to apply Indian law to the merits of their dispute.

In BALCO v Kaiser, the Supreme Court did not explicitly discuss TDM Infrastructure, noting that it was a case under Section 11 of the Act and so choice of law was not an issue that specifically arose for consideration in the case.

Nonetheless, in BALCO v Kaiser, the Supreme Court clearly stated that with respect to an Indian seated arbitration agreement between Indian parties, there was no choice for the arbitral tribunal but to decide the merits of the dispute by applying Indian law. It is ex facie apparent that such a proposition (of applying Indian law to disputes between Indian parties) cannot be extended to foreign seat arbitrations, since Section 28 is contained in Part I of the Act, which, post the judgment in BALCO v Kaiser, does not apply to a foreign seat arbitration. 

Nonetheless, the Constitution Bench has also stated that the import of Section 28 is to “ensure that two or more Indian parties do not circumvent the substantive Indian law, by resorting to arbitrations”. Arguably, such circumvention is also resorted to when two Indian parties choose foreign law as the proper law of the contract in a foreign seat arbitration agreement.

Status of arbitration petitions currently pending in Indian courts

In the concluding paragraph of its decision the Constitution Bench has stated that the law declared in BALCO vKaiser shall apply prospectively, i.e., to agreements entered into after the date of the judgement. Therefore, with respect to pending petitions filed in relation to arbitration agreements entered into before September 6, 2012, the law prior to BALCO v Kaiser would apply. Therefore, now, two interpretations of the law would be in force till disputes in agreements entered up to September 6, 2012, are resolved.

It is also significant to note that with respect to non-applicability of Section 9 of the Act to foreign seat arbitrations, the Supreme Court has stated that the responsibility of removing any “perceived lacuna” would be with the Parliament and not with it. The Government of India, in its Consultation Paper dated 7 April 2010, proposed to amend the Act so as to extend the application of Section 9 of the Act and Section 27 of the Act to foreign seat arbitrations. Given this proposal and the judgment’s limited applicability, the question of whether this judgment would go a long way in affecting international commercial contracts remain to be seen.

This article has been prepared by Khaitan & Co. Associate Partner, Mr. Raj R. Panchmatia and his associates, R. Arunadhri Iyer, Sukanya Bhaumik, Srinivasan Saimani, and Vatsala Sahay, and has been published after due permission from the author(s).

Disclaimer : This article was originally posted on Bar & Bench, and the weblink to the same is available here.

Exclusion of Arbitration Where Disputes Covered by Specialised Tribunals : The Law

The Full Bench of the Delhi High Court was seized with an interesting question, in HDFC Bank v. Satpal Singh Bakshi, as to whether the remedy of arbitration stands excluded in cases where specific tribunals are set up to decide the disputes between the same parties, more particularly in view of the exclusion of jurisdiction clauses set out in such acts. While distinguishing between rights 'in rem' and 'in personam', the Full Bench carved out a neat distinction between what is arbitrable and what is not. The relevant extracts from this important judgment are reproduced hereinbelow;

2. It is clear from the brief description of the factual matrix noted above that the core issue is which of the two enactments, namely, Arbitration Act and RDB Act is to prevail over the other. The Division Bench has framed this legal question in the following format:

"Whether the provisions of the Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996 (hereinafter referred to as the Arbitration Act) are excluded in respect of proceedings initiated by banks and financial institutions under the Recovery of Debts due to Banks and Financial Institutions Act, 1993 (hereinafter referred to as the RDB Act)."

3. When the matter came up for hearing before the Division Bench, another judgment of Division Bench of this Court in Kohinoor Creations and Ors. v. Syndicate Bank, 2005 (2) Arb. LR 324 (Delhi) was referred to wherein it has been inter alia held that in view of the provisions of Section 34 of the RDB Act, the provisions of Arbitration Act stand excluded and on that basis, it was argued that the view held by DRT and DRAT in the impugned orders did not reflect the correct legal position which was contrary to the aforesaid judgment of this Court. The Division Bench considered it proper that the matter required to be settled by a larger bench giving the following reasons therefor:

"Learned counsel for the petitioner has referred to a judgment of Division Bench of this court in Kohinoor Creations and Ors. Vs. Syndicate Bank 2005 (2) ARBLR 324 Delhi wherein it has been inter alia held that in view of the provisions of section 34 of the RDB Act, the provisions of the Arbitration Act stand excluded. In coming to this conclusion, specific emphasis is laid on sub-section (2) of Section 34 of the RDB Act. Section 34 of the RDB Act reads as under:-

"34. Act to have over-riding effect-

(1). Save as otherwise provided in sub-section(2), the provisions of this Act shall have effect notwithstanding anything inconsistent therewith contained in any other law for the time being in force or in any instrument having effect by virtue of any law other than this Act.

2). The provisions of this Act or the rules made there under shall be in addition to, and not in derogation of the Industrial Finance Corporation Act, 1948, the State Financial Corporation Act, 1951, the Unit Trust of India Act, 1963, the Industrial Reconstruction Bank of India Ltd., 1984, the Sick Industrial Companies (Special Provisions) Act, 1985 and the Small Industries Development Bank of India Act, 1989."

The submission of the learned counsel for the petitioner thus is, relying on the aforesaid judgment, that if a claim is over Rs.10 Lakh then jurisdiction of the Civil Court is excluded qua banks and financial institution, and therefore banks and financial institution have to necessarily approach the DRT for recovery of the amount in terms of the RDB Act. In other words, the applicability of the Arbitration Act stands ousted. In our considered view, sub-section(2) of section 34 of the RDB Act only provides that the provision of that Act are in addition to certain acts specified therein. The question which arises for consideration is whether by implication all other Acts not referred to in sub-section (2) of Section 34 are overridden by the provisions of the RDB Act. While considering this aspect, it will have to be borne in mind that firstly, the Arbitration Act was enacted after the enforcement of the RDB Act and secondly, the exclusivity of jurisdiction conferred on the DRTs‟ is perhaps applicable to public forums as against private forums such as an arbitral tribunal. To test the proposition, if one were to ask whether the DRT would refuse to pass an order on a compromise application where parties agree to an intercession of an arbitrator on a portion of a claim during the pendency of the matter before it; the answer may perhaps be in the negative. There are therefore, to our mind, several unanswered aspects of the matter which require closer examination.

We are thus of the view that this matter is of some importance and thus the question of law as aforesaid, needs to be settled by a Larger Bench of this court..."

4. This is how the matter was placed before this Bench. Keeping in view the importance of the issue involved and also that the respondent has failed to put in appearance inspite of service, we had requested Mr. Parag P. Tripathi, learned senior counsel to assist the Court. Mr. Tripathi stated that after examining the whole matter, he was of the view that RDB Act was a special statute which would prevail over the Arbitration Act. He thus argued on these lines thereby supporting the cause of the bank. Mr.Tripathi opened his submission by explaining the special status of the RDB Act and the raison d'etre behind this enactment. He impressed upon the fact that this Act was enacted in the background of swelling Non Performing Assets (NPAs) and difficulty of banks and financial institutions to recover loans and enforcement of the same. Mostly, these institutions are public financial institutions and monies are public money. The focus was therefore expeditious adjudication and recovery of debts. The validity of the Act was upheld by the Supreme Court in Union of India v. Delhi High Court Bar Association,(2002) 4 SCC 275 which set aside the judgment of the High Court. Referring to preamble of the RDB Act, he pointed out that the same provides for "establishment of tribunals for expeditious adjudication and recovery of debts due to banks and financial institutions". Going by the Objects and Reasons behind the RDB Act, it was crystal clear that the purpose was to unlock the locked potentials of NPAs. In this sense, he submitted, RDB Act was special statute enacted for specific purpose. In this context, explaining the concept of a special law or statute, of Mr.Tripathi endeavored to build step by step edifice of his submissions in the following manner:

(a) Section 9 of CPC makes it clear that every party has a right of recourse to civil remedy before a duly constituted civil court unless the remedy is barred either expressly or by implication. It is also a settled law that any provision ousting the jurisdiction of civil court must be strictly construed. [Sahebgouda v. Ogeppa, (2003) 6 SCC 151].

(b) He then explained the working of RDB Act pointing out that RDB Act is relatable to Entry 45 of List I (Banking). Preamble of this Act provides for "establishment of tribunals for expeditious adjudication and recovery of debts due to banks and financial institutions....". Under Section 19, only a bank or a financial institution [as defined under Section 2(d) and (h) of the RDB Act] can trigger the provisions of the RDB Act when the „debt‟ [as defined under Section 2(g)] is more than `10 Lakhs [Section 1(4)]. Therefore, RDB Act operates within a very narrow compass and deals with a very special situation of recovery of debts due to banks and financial institutions, which clearly makes it a special law dealing with a specific situation.

(c) On the other hand, Arbitration Act relates to Entry 11A (Administration of Justice) and Entry 13 (Civil Procedure, including Arbitration) of List III. As per the preamble of this Act, it "consolidates and amends the law relating to domestic arbitration, the international arbitration and enforcement of foreign arbitral awards as to define the law relating to Constitution....". Premised on this, submission of Mr. Tripathi was that the Arbitration Act takes within its sweep all possible arbitrations dealing with an exceptionally wide cross sections and possible areas of disputes. Any dispute, which is arbitrable in nature, would be governed by the provision of the Arbitration Act, which exposes its general nature as regards the subject matter of disputes it deals with. Further, an arbitral tribunal is an alternative to civil courts and its jurisdiction would coincide with a civil court [Executive Engineer, Dhenkanal Minor Irrigiation Division v. N.C. Budharaj, (2001) 2 SCC 721]. (d) Advancing his plea predicated on his aforesaid submission pointing out the nature of RDB Act and Arbitration Act, Mr. Tripathi argued that the Arbitration Act is a general statute vis-à-vis RDB Act which is a special statute with regard to recovery of debts of banks and financial institutions and, therefore, the provisions of special statute, i.e. RDB Act, would prevail over those of general statute, i.e. Arbitration Act.

(e) Mr. Tripathi accepted that Arbitration Act may be special statute when it is placed in juxtaposition with the jurisdiction of civil courts to entertain and adjudicate civil disputes inasmuch as in that sense, the Arbitration Act provided for special forum, chosen by the parties who wanted to remain away from the civil court for the adjudication of their inter se disputes. His submission, however, was that there have been instances where the same statute has been treated as a special statute vis-à-vis one legislation and as a general statute vis-à- vis another legislation. The issue arose in Life Insurance Corporation of India v. D.J. Bahadur, (1981) 1 SCC 315, viz. whether in the context of a dispute between workmen and management (of LIC), the LIC Act or the Industrial Disputes Act is a special statute. It was observed:

"52. In determining whether a statute is a special or a general one, the focus must be on the principal subject matter plus the particular perspective. For certain purposes, an Act may be general and for certain other purposes it may be special and we cannot blur distinctions when dealing with finer points of law.

The Apex Court further held:

"....vis-a-vis 'industrial disputes' at the termination of the settlement as between the workmen and the Corporation the ID Act is a special legislation and the L.I.C. Act a general legislation. Likewise, when compensation on nationalisation is the question, the L.I.C. Act is the special statute."

Similarly in the case of Damji Valji Shah v. LIC of India, AIR 1966 SC 135, the Supreme Court held:

"Further, the provision of the special Act, i.e. the LIC Act, will override the provisions of the general Act, viz., the Companies Act which is an Act relating to companies in general."

He also drew our attention to the decision of Snehadeep Structures Pvt. Ltd. v. Maharashtra Small-Scale Industries Development Corporation Ltd., (2010) 3 SCC 34, where the Supreme Court while dealing with applicability of provisions of the interest on delayed payment to Small Scale and Ancillary Industrial Undertaking Act, 1993 vis-à-vis Arbitration Act, held:

"38. The preamble of Interest Act shows that the very objective of the Act was "to provide for and regulate the payment of interest on delayed payments to small scale and ancillary industrial undertakings and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto." Thus, as far as interest on delayed payment to Small Scale Industries as well as connected matters are concerned, the Act is a special legislation with respect to any other legislation, including the Arbitration Act. The contention of the respondent that the matter of interest payment will be governed by Section 31(7) of the Arbitration Act, hence, is erroneous. Section 4 of the Interest Act endorses the same which sets out the liability of the buyer to pay interest to the supplier 'notwithstanding anything contained in any agreement between the buyer and the supplier or in any law for the time being in force.' Thus, Interest Act is a special legislation as far as the liability to pay interest, or to make a deposit thereof, while challenging an award/decree/order granting interest is concerned."

He, thus, impressed that insofar as comparison of RDB Act with Arbitration Act is concerned, RDB Act is to be treated as special statute vis-à-vis Arbitration Act and on the application of settled principle of generalia specialibus non derogant the former would prevail over the latter to the limited extent of proceeding initiated by the Banks/Financial Institutions for the recovery of debts.

5. In his attempt to carry home these points, other submissions of Mr.Tripathi were as follows:

(i) Section 17 of the RDB Act makes it clear that the DRT alone is to decide the applications of the Banks and Financial Institutions for recovery of debts due to them. Also, Section 18 of the Act clearly bars the jurisdiction of any other court, except High Court and Supreme Court, from entertaining matters specified in Section 17. Furthermore, Section 31 of the Act transfers all such cases pending before any Court to the DRT. It is therefore evident from the scheme of the RDB that an exclusive jurisdiction has been given to the DRT. He argued that the law on this point has already been conclusively settled by the Supreme Court in the matter of Allahabad Bank v. Canara Bank, (2000) 4 SCC 406, where the issue was with regard to jurisdiction of DRT and Recovery Officers under the DRT Act vis-à- vis Company Court (when a winding up petition is pending, or a winding up order has been passed). It was held that the adjudication of liability and execution of the certificate in respect of debt payable to banks and financial institutions is within the exclusive jurisdiction of the DRT and the concerned Recovery Officer, and in such a case the jurisdiction of the Company Court under Section 442, 537 and 446 of the Companies Act, 1956 stands ousted.

(ii) On the other hand, the Arbitration Act is a substitute for a civil Court within the meaning of Section 9 to adjudicate civil disputes, subject to the additional limitation where it is a right in rem, which is to be adjudicated. Taking sustenance from the judgment of Supreme Court in the matter of Booz Allen and Hamilton Inc. v. SBI Home Finance Limited & Ors., (2011) 5 SCC 532, he pointed out that the Supreme Court while dealing with the issue of „arbitrability‟ of dispute held that Arbitral Tribunals are „private fori‟ chosen by the parties in place of Courts or Tribunals which are „public fori‟ constituted under the laws of the country. All disputes relating to „right in personam‟ are considered to be amenable to arbitration and all disputes relating to „right in rem‟ are required to be adjudicated by courts and public tribunals, being unsuited for private arbitration. He attempted to apply the ratio of the aforesaid judgment to the given case arguing that when the legislature has expressly made a particular kind of dispute to be decided by a public forum, then the same has been by implication excluded from the purview of arbitrability and therefore cannot be decided by a private forum like arbitration.

(iii) Mr. Tripathi also tried to draw support from Section 34 of the RDB Act which provides a non-obstante clause. Section 34(2) stipulates that RDB Act is „in addition to and not in derogation‟ to any law or force. On the contrary, the Arbitration Act does not have any non- obstante clause except a limited extent insofar as judicial intervention is concerned as provided in Section 5 of the Arbitration Act. He thus submitted that where there are two Acts, the one having a non- obstante clause will prevail over the other and for this reason also, RDB Act should prevail over Arbitration Act. He also submitted that a finer reading of the provisions of RDB Act, particularly Section 34 thereof, would reveal that application of Arbitration Act had been expressly as well as impliedly excluded. He also submitted that even if the Arbitration Act is a latter Act, the concept of arbitration was well known to Parliament right from Arbitration Act, 1891 through to the Arbitration Act, 1940. Apart from Section 34, even Section 18 of the RDB Act ousts jurisdiction of all other courts in relation to matters specified in Section 17. Since arbitration is an alternative to the jurisdiction of civil courts and its jurisdiction would be confined and in alternative to cases where civil courts have jurisdiction, therefore, when the jurisdiction of civil courts are ousted, it would impliedly oust the jurisdiction of the arbitral tribunal also. It is Section 18 which is somewhat in pari materia with Section 5 of the Arbitration Act.

(iv) Mr. Tripathi concluded his submissions by referring to the judgment of the Supreme Court in Nahar Industrial Enterprise Ltd. v. Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation, (2009) 8 SCC 646 and submitted that the issue at hand stands settled by the aforesaid judgment. In that case, the issue was whether the High Court or Supreme Court has the power to transfer a suit pending in a Civil Court to DRT. The Court enunciated the law as under:

"117. The Act, although, was enacted for a specific purpose but having regard to the exclusion of jurisdiction expressly provided for in Sections 17 and 18 of the Act, it is difficult to hold that a civil court's jurisdiction is completely ousted. Indisputably the banks and the financial institutions for the purpose of enforcement of their claim for a sum below Rs. 10 lakhs would have to file civil suits before the civil courts. It is only for the claims of the banks and the financial institutions above the aforementioned sum that they have to approach the Debt Recovery Tribunal. It is also without any cavil that the banks and the financial institutions, keeping in view the provisions of Sections 17 and 18 of the Act, are necessarily required to file their claim petitions before the Tribunal. The converse is not true. Debtors can file their claims of set off or counter-claims only when a claim application is filed and not otherwise. Even in a given situation the banks and/or the financial institutions can ask the Tribunal to pass an appropriate order for getting the claims of set-off or the counter claims, determined by a civil court. The Tribunal is not a high powered tribunal. It is a one man Tribunal. Unlike some Special Acts, as for example Andhra Pradesh Land Grabbing (Prohibition) Act, 1982 it does not contain a deeming provision that the Tribunal would be deemed to be a civil court."

5. Mr. Puneet Bhalla, learned counsel appearing for the bank adopted the aforesaid arguments. In addition, he heavily relied upon the reasons given by the Division Bench in Kohinoor Creations (supra) and submitted that the approach of the Division Bench in the said case was in tune with the legal position which should be maintained.

6. From the detailed submissions made by Mr. Tripathi and Mr. Bhalla as noted above and the reading of judgment of the Division Bench in Kohinoor Creations (supra), it is clear that the entire rationale sought to be projected is the exclusiveness of the RDB Act to deal with the matters which fall within the jurisdiction of the Debt Recovery Tribunals constituted under the said Act. On that basis, the attempt is to show that all those matters which are covered by the RDB Act for which special machinery in the form of Debt Recovery Tribunal and Debt Recovery Appellate Tribunal is constituted, such matters come within the sole and exclusive domain of Debt Recovery Tribunal and no other body or forum has any jurisdiction to deal with such disputes.

7. There is no doubt that those matters which are covered by the RDB Act and are to be adjudicated upon by the Debt Recovery Tribunal/ Debt Recovery Appellate Tribunal, jurisdiction of civil courts is barred. Up to this point, we are in agreement with the learned counsels. However, the answer to the question posed before us does not depend upon the aforesaid principle. That principle only ousts the jurisdiction of civil courts. Focus of the issue, however, has to be somewhat different viz. even when a special Tribunal is created to decide the claims of banks and financial institutions of amounts more than `10 Lakhs, can the parties by mutual agreement still agree that instead of the Tribunal constituted under the RDB Act, these disputes shall be decided by the Arbitral Tribunal. If answer to this question is in the negative, then those submissions made by the counsels shall prevail. On the other hand, if we find that it is permissible for the parties, by agreement, to agree for domestic forum of their own choice, namely, Arbitral Tribunal under the Arbitration Act to deal with such claims, then the edifice of the apparent forceful submissions of Mr. Tripathi would collapse like house of cards as all those submissions would be relegated to the pale of insignificance.

8. No doubt, for determination of disputes the State provides the mechanism in the form of judicial fora, i.e. administration of justice through the means of judicial system established in this country as per the Constitution and the laws. However, it is also recognized that that is not the only means for determination of lis or resolution of conflicts between the parties. Still the parties are given freedom to choose a forum, alternate to and in place of the regular courts or judicial system for the decision of their inter se disputes. There has been a recognition of the concept that notwithstanding the judicial system, parties are free to chose their own forum in the form of arbitration. This was first recognized by enacting Arbitration Act, 1891. Introduction of Section 89 in the Code of Civil Procedure by amendment to the said Code in the year 2002 takes this concept further by introducing various other forums, known as Alternate Dispute Resolution. Thus, even when the matter is pending in the Court, parties to the dispute are given freedom to resort to Lok Adalat, conciliation, mediation and also the arbitration.

9. All civil societies demand a proper, effective and independent judicial system to resolve the disputes that may arise. Resolution of disputes by Municipal Courts is, therefore, prevalent in all countries and independence of judiciary is endeavoured in democratic set ups. While courts are State machinery discharging sovereign function of judicial decision making, various alternate methods for resolving the disputes have also been evolved over a period of time. One of the oldest among these is the arbitration. This is a forum for dispute resolution in place of municipal court. Important feature of arbitration is that parties to the dispute voluntarily agree to get the disputes decided by one or more persons, rather than the Court. Though the Indian Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996 does not contain a definition of "arbitration", Statement of Objects and Reasons contained therein gives an indication of the general principles on which arbitration is founded. These are:

i. The object of arbitration is to ensure a fair resolution of disputes by an impartial tribunal without unnecessary delay or expense. ii. The parties should be free to agree how their disputes are resolved subject only to such safeguards as are necessary in the public interest.

iii. Intervention of the courts should be restricted.

10. Thus, the Courts have not been the only forum for conflict resolutions. As already pointed about above, arbitration in the form of statute was given recognition in the year 1899 though even earlier to that, arbitration in some or other form prevailed in this country. What is important is that arbitration as an alternate to resolution by municipal courts is recognized and in the process, sanctity is attached to the domestic forum which is chosen by the parties themselves. In that sense, party autonomy is recognized as paramount. It is a recognition of the fact that the parties are given freedom to agree how their disputes are resolved. Even the intervention by the Courts is restricted and is minimal.

11. What follows from the above? When arbitration as alternate to the civil courts is recognized, which is the common case of the parties before us, creation of Debt Recovery Tribunal under the RDB Act as a forum for deciding claims of banks and financial institutions would make any difference? We are of the firm view that answer has to be in the negative. What is so special under the RDB Act? It is nothing but creating a tribunal to decide certain specific types of cases which were earlier decided by the civil courts and is popularly known as „tribunalization of justice‟. It is a matter of record that there are so many such tribunals created. Service matters of the civil servants and employees of public bodies/authorities which were hitherto dealt with by the civil courts and the High Court are now given to the Central Administrative Tribunal and State Administrative Tribunals with the enactment of Administrative Tribunals Act, 1985. Disputes of defence personnel are now dealt with by special tribunals called Armed Forces Tribunal constituted under the Armed Forces Tribunal Act, 2007. With the creation of all these special tribunals, the matters which were up to now dealt with by civil courts or High Courts are to be taken up by these tribunals in the first instance. (We would like to point out that in so far as High Court is concerned, constitutional remedy provided under Article 226 of the Constitution of India remains intact as held in L. Chandrakumar v. Union of India, (1994) 5 SCC 539. However, it is not necessary to dilate on this issue as that does not have any bearing on the present issue).

12. With the creation of these alternate fora with all trappings of the Court and with the decision of the disputes which were hitherto dealt with by the civil courts, can it be said that parties are now totally precluded and prohibited of exercising their choice of domestic forum in the form of arbitral tribunal. Before we answer this question, we would like to refer to the judgment in the case of Booz Allen and Hamilton Inc. (supra). The Supreme Court in that case dealt with the issue of "arbitrability of disputes" and held that all disputes relating to „right in personam‟ are considered to be amenable to arbitration and disputes relating to „right in rem‟ are those disputes which are not arbitrable and require to be adjudicated by courts and public tribunals, being unsuited for private arbitration. Law in this respect is explained by the Supreme Court with utmost clarity, precision and erudition in the following terms:

"32. The nature and scope of issues arising for consideration in an application under Section 11 of the Act for appointment of arbitrators, are far narrower than those arising in an application under Section 8 of the Act, seeking reference of the parties to a suit to arbitration. While considering an application under Section 11 of the Act, the Chief Justice or his designate would not embark upon an examination of the issue of 'arbitrability' or appropriateness of adjudication by a private forum, once he finds that there was an arbitration agreement between or among the parties, and would leave the issue of arbitrability for the decision of the arbitral Tribunal. If the arbitrator wrongly holds that the dispute is arbitrable, the aggrieved party will have to challenge the award by filing an application under Section 34 of the Act, relying upon Sub-Section 2(b)(i) of that section.

33. But where the issue of 'arbitrability' arises in the context of an application under Section 8 of the Act in a pending suit, all aspects of arbitrability have to be decided by the court seized of the suit, and cannot be left to the decision of the Arbitrator. Even if there is an arbitration agreement between the parties, and even if the dispute is covered by the arbitration agreement, the court where the civil suit is pending, will refuse an application under Section 8 of the Act, to refer the parties to arbitration, if the subject matter of the suit is capable of adjudication only by a public forum or the relief claimed can only be granted by a special court or Tribunal.

34. The term 'arbitrability' has different meanings in different contexts. The three facets of arbitrability, relating to the jurisdiction of the arbitral tribunal, are as under:

(i) whether the disputes are capable of adjudication and settlement by arbitration? That is, whether the disputes, having regard to their nature, could be resolved by a private forum chosen by the parties (the arbitral tribunal) or whether they would exclusively fall within the domain of public fora (courts).

(ii) Whether the disputes are covered by the arbitration agreement? That is, whether the disputes are enumerated or described in the arbitration agreement as matters to be decided by arbitration or whether the disputes fall under the 'excepted matters' excluded from the purview of the arbitration agreement.

(iii) Whether the parties have referred the disputes to arbitration? That is, whether the disputes fall under the scope of the submission to the arbitral tribunal, or whether they do not arise out of the statement of claim and the counter claim filed before the arbitral tribunal. A dispute, even if it is capable of being decided by arbitration and falling within the scope of arbitration agreement, will not be 'arbitrable' if it is not enumerated in the joint list of disputes referred to arbitration, or in the absence of such joint list of disputes, does not form part of the disputes raised in the pleadings before the arbitral tribunal.

35. Arbitral tribunals are private fora chosen voluntarily by the parties to the dispute, to adjudicate their disputes in place of courts and tribunals which are public fora constituted under the laws of the country. Every civil or commercial dispute, either contractual or non-contractual, which can be decided by a court, is in principle capable of being adjudicated and resolved by arbitration unless the jurisdiction of arbitral tribunals is excluded either expressly or by necessary implication. Adjudication of certain categories of proceedings are reserved by the Legislature exclusively for public fora as a matter of public policy. Certain other categories of cases, though not expressly reserved for adjudication by a public fora (courts and Tribunals), may by necessary implication stand excluded from the purview of private fora. Consequently, where the cause/dispute is inarbitrable, the court where a suit is pending, will refuse to refer the parties to arbitration, under Section 8 of the Act, even if the parties might have agreed upon arbitration as the forum for settlement of such disputes.

36. The well recognized examples of non-arbitrable disputes are: (i) disputes relating to rights and liabilities which give rise to or arise out of criminal offences; (ii) matrimonial disputes relating to divorce, judicial separation, restitution of conjugal rights, child custody; (iii) guardianship matters; (iv) insolvency and winding up matters; (v) testamentary matters (grant of probate, letters of administration and succession certificate); and (vi) eviction or tenancy matters governed by special statutes where the tenant enjoys statutory protection against eviction and only the specified courts are conferred jurisdiction to grant eviction or decide the disputes.

37. It may be noticed that the cases referred to above relate to actions in rem. A right in rem is a right exercisable against the world at large, as contrasted from a right in personam which is an interest protected solely against specific individuals. Actions in personam refer to actions determining the rights and interests of the parties themselves in the subject matter of the case, whereas actions in rem refer to actions determining the title to property and the rights of the parties, not merely among themselves but also against all persons at any time claiming an interest in that property. Correspondingly, judgment in personam refers to a judgment against a person as distinguished from a judgment against a thing, right or status and judgment in rem refers to a judgment that determines the status or condition of property which operates directly on the property itself. (Vide: Black's Law Dictionary).

38. Generally and traditionally all disputes relating to rights in personam are considered to be amenable to arbitration; and all disputes relating to rights in rem are required to be adjudicated by courts and public tribunals, being unsuited for private arbitration. This is not however a rigid or inflexible rule. Disputes relating to sub-ordinate rights in personam arising from rights in rem have always been considered to be arbitrable."

13. What is discernible from the above is that all disputes relating to „right in personam‟ are arbitrable and choice is given to the parties to choose this alternate forum. On the other hand, those relating to „right in rem‟ having inherent public interest are not arbitrable and the parties‟ choice to choose forum of arbitration is ousted. Examined in this line, it is obvious that a claim of money by the bank or financial institution against the borrower cannot be treated as „right in rem‟. Each claim involves adjudication whether, on the facts of that case, money is payable by the borrower to the bank/financial institution and if so to what extent. Each case is the decision on the facts of that case with no general ramifications. A judgment/decision of the Debt Recovery Tribunal deciding a particular claim can never be „right in rem‟ and is a „right in personam‟ as it decides the individual case/claim before it with no elements of any public interest.

14. Merely because there were huge NPAs and lot of monies belonging to the banks and financial institutions was stuck up and the legislature in its wisdom decided to create a special forum to have expeditious disposal of these cases would not mean that decisions rendered by Debt Recovery Tribunal come in the realm of „right in rem‟. At the same time, we find from the judgment in Booz Allen and Hamilton Inc. (supra) that certain kinds of disputes for which tribunals are created are held to be non- arbitrable. Examples are Rent Control Tribunal under the Rent Control Act and Labour Court/Industrial Tribunal under the Industrial Disputes Act, 1947. Obviously, question that would immediately strike is as to what would be the yardstick to determine some kind of disputes to be decided by the tribunals are non-arbitrable whereas some other disputes become arbitrable. According to us, cases where a particular enactment creates special rights and obligations and gives special powers to the tribunals which are not with the civil courts, those disputes would be non-arbitrable.

It is a matter of common knowledge that Rent Control Act grants statutory protection to the tenants. Wherever provisions of Rent Control Act are applicable, it overrides the contract entered into between the parties. It is the rights created under the Act which prevail and those rights are not enforceable through civil courts but only through the tribunals which is given special jurisdiction not available with the civil courts. Likewise, Industrial Disputes Act, 1947 creates special rights in favour of the workman or employers and gives special powers to the industrial adjudicators/tribunals to even create rights which powers are not available to civil courts. Obviously such disputes cannot be decided by means of arbitral tribunals which are substitute of civil courts. On the other hand, in so far as tribunal like Debt Recovery Tribunal is concerned, it is simply a replacement of civil court. There are no special rights created in favour of the banks or financial institutions. There are no special powers given to the Debt Recovery Tribunal except that the procedure for deciding the disputes is little different from that of CPC applicable to civil courts. Otherwise, the Debt Recovery Tribunal is supposed to apply the same law as applied by the civil courts in deciding the dispute coming before it and is enforcing contractual rights of the Banks. It is, therefore, only a shift of forum from civil court to the tribunal for speedy disposal. Therefore, applying the principle contained in Booz Allen and Hamilton Inc. (supra), we are of the view that the matters which come within the scope and jurisdiction of Debt Recovery Tribunal are arbitrable.

15. Once that conclusion is arrived at, obviously the parties are given a choice to chose their own private forum in the form of arbitration.

16. Another significant fact which has to be highlighted is that the bank entered into agreement with the respondent herein on its own standard form formats. The terms and conditions of the loan were set out and decided by the bank. The respondent signed on dotted lines. In this scenario, when it was the proposal of the bank to have an arbitration clause to which the respondent had agreed, bank cannot now be permitted to say that this arbitration clause is of no consequence. Accepting the contention of bank would mean that the arbitration clause is rendered nugatory. It defeats the very effect of the said arbitration clause which was foisted by the bank itself upon the respondent, though in law, it becomes mutually acceptable between the parties.

17. Matter can be looked into form another angle as well. Had the bank invoked the arbitration on the basis of aforesaid clause containing arbitration agreement between the parties and referred the matter to the arbitral tribunal, was it permissible for the respondent to take an objection to the maintainability of those arbitration proceedings? Answer would be an emphatic no. When we find that answer is in the negative, the Court cannot permit a situation where such an arbitration agreement becomes one sided agreement, namely, to be invoked by the bank alone at its discretion without giving any corresponding right to the respondent to have the benefit thereof.

Whether Two FIR's Permissible in Law for the Same Incident / Occurence : Supreme Court

Justice Swatanter Kumar
Supreme Court of India

An interesting question came up before the Supreme Court in Anju Chaudhary Vs. State of U.P. whether there can be more than one FIR in relation to the same incident or different incidents arising from the same occurrence? While answering the aforesaid question, the Bench held as under;

2. A cardinal question of public importance and one that is likely to arise more often than not in relation to the lodging of the First Information Report (FIR) with the aid of Section 156(3) of the Code of Criminal Procedure (for short, ‘the Code’) or otherwise independently within the ambit of Section 154 of the Code is as to whether there can be more than one FIR in relation to the same incident or different incidents arising from the same occurrence. 

... 

9. In the present appeal by way of special leave, the appellant Smt. Anju Chaudhary challenges the legality and correctness of the order of the High Court primarily on the following grounds : 

(a) The order passed by learned CJM dated 29th July, 2008 did not suffer from any error of jurisdiction and, thus, the High Court could not have upset the said order in exercise of its revisional jurisdiction. 

(b) While making certain observations, the High Court, in the impugned order held that prima facie cognizable offences were made out and while virtually directing the learned Magistrate to get an FIR registered, has foreclosed the exercise of judicial discretion by the learned Magistrate. As such, the order of the High Court is not sustainable. 

(c) In law, there cannot be two FIRs registered in relation to the same occurrence or different events or incidents two or more but forming part of the same transaction. The direction to register a second FIR, therefore, is contrary to law and the very spirit of Section 154 of the Code. 

(d) The order of the High Court is in violation of the principles of natural justice inasmuch as the High Court neither gave any notice nor heard the appellant before passing the impugned order dated 26th September, 2008. 

10. Contra to the above submissions made by the appellant, the counsel appearing for the State as well as respondent No.2 have supported the order of the High Court in law as well as with reference to the facts of the case in hand. It is contended on their behalf that there were no two separate FIRs in relation to the same offence or occurrence, but these FIRS related to two different incidents which is permissible in law. The appellant was not entitled to any hearing in law at the stage of filing the FIR, and in any case no direction has been made to register a case particularly against the appellant for any given offence. Thus, the order of the High Court does not call for any interference. 

11. Having noticed the contentions of the parties and in order to complete the factual matrix of the case, we may also notice at this stage that in furtherance to the order of the High Court dated 26th September, 2008, the learned CJM, vide order dated 17th October, 2008 accepted the application of respondent No.2 and directed the Police Station Cantt., Gorakhpur to register the case under appropriate sections and to ensure the investigation in terms of the order passed by the High Court. A copy of the order was placed before this Court during the course of hearing. 

12. Since all these contentions are inter-related and inter-dependant, it will be appropriate for the Court to examine them collectively. Of course, the foremost contention raised before us is as to whether it is permissible to register two different FIRs in law. We may deal with the legal aspect of this issue first and then turn to the facts. 

13. Section 154 of the Code requires that every information relating to the commission of a cognizable offence, whether given orally or otherwise to the officer in-charge of a police station, has to be reduced into writing by or under the direction of such officer and shall be signed by the person giving such information. The substance thereof shall be entered in a book to be kept by such officer in such form as may be prescribed by the State Government in this behalf. 

14. A copy of the information so recorded under Section 154(1) has to be given to the informant free of cost. In the event of refusal to record such information, the complainant can take recourse to the remedy available to him under Section 154(3). Thus, there is an obligation on the part of a police officer to register the information received by him of commission of a cognizable offence. The two-fold obligation upon such officer is that (a) he should receive such information and (b) record the same as prescribed. The language of the section imposes such imperative obligation upon the officer. An investigating officer, an officer-in-charge of a police station can be directed to conduct an investigation in the area under his jurisdiction by the order of a Magistrate under Section 156(3) of the Code who is competent to take cognizance under Section 190. Upon such order, the investigating officer shall conduct investigation in accordance with the provisions of Section 156 of the Code. The specified Magistrate, in terms of Section 190 of the Code, is entitled to take cognizance upon receiving a complaint of facts which constitute such offence; upon a police report of such facts; upon information received from any person other than a police officer, or upon his own knowledge, that such offence has been committed. 

15. On the plain construction of the language and scheme of Sections 154, 156 and 190 of the Code, it cannot be construed or suggested that there can be more than one FIR about an occurrence. However, the opening words of Section 154 suggest that every information relating to commission of a cognizable offence shall be reduced to writing by the officer in-charge of a Police Station. This implies that there has to be the first information report about an incident which constitutes a cognizable offence. The purpose of registering an FIR is to set the machinery of criminal investigation into motion, which culminates with filing of the police report in terms of Section 173(2) of the Code. It will, thus, be appropriate to follow the settled principle that there cannot be two FIRs registered for the same offence. However, where the incident is separate; offences are similar or different, or even where the subsequent crime is of such magnitude that it does not fall within the ambit and scope of the FIR recorded first, then a second FIR could be registered. The most important aspect is to examine the inbuilt safeguards provided by the legislature in the very language of Section 154 of the Code. These safeguards can be safely deduced from the principle akin to double jeopardy, rule of fair investigation and further to prevent abuse of power by the investigating authority of the police. Therefore, second FIR for the same incident cannot be registered. Of course, the Investigating Agency has no determinative right. It is only a right to investigate in accordance with the provisions of the Code. The filing of report upon completion of investigation, either for cancellation or alleging commission of an offence, is a matter which once filed before the court of competent jurisdiction attains a kind of finality as far as police is concerned, may be in a given case, subject to the right of further investigation but wherever the investigation has been completed and a person is found to be prima facie guilty of committing an offence or otherwise, reexamination by the investigating agency on its own should not be permitted merely by registering another FIR with regard to the same offence. If such protection is not given to a suspect, then possibility of abuse of investigating powers by the Police cannot be ruled out. It is with this intention in mind that such interpretation should be given to Section 154 of the Code, as it would not only further the object of law but even that of just and fair investigation. More so, in the backdrop of the settled canons of criminal jurisprudence, re-investigation or de novo investigation is beyond the competence of not only the investigating agency but even that of the learned Magistrate. The courts have taken this view primarily for the reason that it would be opposed to the scheme of the Code and more particularly Section 167(2) of the Code. [Ref. Rita Nag v. State of West Bengal [(2009) 9 SCC 129] and Vinay Tyagi v. Irshad Ali @ Deepak & Ors. (SLP (Crl) No.9185-9186 of 2009 of the same date). 

16. It has to be examined on the merits of each case whether a subsequently registered FIR is a second FIR about the same incident or offence or is based upon distinct and different facts and whether its scope of inquiry is entirely different or not. It will not be appropriate for the Court to lay down one straightjacket formula uniformly applicable to all cases. This will always be a mixed question of law and facts depending upon the merits of a given case. In the case of Ram Lal Narang v. State (Delhi Administration) [(1979) 2 SCC 322], the Court was concerned with the registration of a second FIR in relation to the same facts but constituting different offences and where ambit and scope of the investigation was entirely different. Firstly, an FIR was registered and even the charge- sheet filed was primarily concerned with the offence of conspiracy to cheat and misappropriation by the two accused. At that stage, the investigating agency was not aware of any conspiracy to send the pillars (case property) out of the country. It was also not known that some other accused persons were parties to the conspiracy to obtain possession of the pillars from the court, which subsequently surfaced in London. Earlier, it was only known to the Police that the pillars were stolen as the property within the meaning of Section 410 IPC and were in possession of the accused person (Narang brothers) in London. The Court declined to grant relief of discharge to the petitioner in that case where the contention raised was that entire investigation in the FIR subsequently instituted was illegal as the case on same facts was already pending before the courts at Ambala and courts in Delhi were acting without jurisdiction. The fresh facts came to light and the scope of investigation broadened by the facts which came to be disclosed subsequently during the investigation of the first FIR. The comparison of the two FIRs has shown that the conspiracies were different. They were not identical and the subject matter was different. The Court observed that there was a statutory duty upon the Police to register every information relating to cognizable offence and the second FIR was not hit by the principle that it is impermissible to register a second FIR of the same offence. The Court held as under : 

“20.Anyone acquainted with the day-to-day working of the criminal courts will be alive to the practical necessity of the police possessing the power to make further investigation and submit a supplemental report. It is in the interests of both the prosecution and the defence that the police should have such power. It is easy to visualize a case where fresh material may come to light which would implicate persons not previously accused or absolve persons already accused. When it comes to the notice of the investigating agency that a person already accused of an offence has a good alibi, is it not the duty of that agency to investigate the genuineness of the plea of alibi and submit a report to the Magistrate? After all, the investigating agency has greater resources at its command than a private individual. Similarly, where the involvement of persons who are not already accused comes to the notice of the investigating agency, the investigating agency cannot keep quiet and refuse to investigate the fresh information. It is their duty to investigate and submit a report to the Magistrate upon the involvement of the other persons. In either case, it is for the Magistrate to decide upon his future course of action depending upon the stage at which the case is before him. If he has already taken cognizance of the offence, but has not proceeded with the enquiry or trial, he may direct the issue of process to persons freshly discovered to be involved and deal with all the accused in a single enquiry or trial. If the case of which he has previously taken cognizance has already proceeded to some extent, he may take fresh cognizance of the offence disclosed against the newly involved accused and proceed with the case as a separate case. What action a Magistrate is to take in accordance with the provisions of the CrPC in such situations is a matter best left to the discretion of the Magistrate. The criticism that a further investigation by the police would trench upon the proceeding before the court is really not of very great substance, since whatever the police may do, the final discretion in regard to further action is with the Magistrate. That the final word is with the Magistrate is sufficient safeguard against any excessive use or abuse of the power of the police to make further investigation. We should not, however, be understood to say that the police should ignore the pendency of a proceeding before a court and investigate every fresh fact that comes to light as if no cognizance had been taken by the Court of any offence. We think that in the interests of the independence of the magistracy and the judiciary, in the interests of the purity of the administration of criminal justice and in the interests of the comity of the various agencies and institutions entrusted with different stages of such administration, it would ordinarily be desirable that the police should inform the court and seek formal permission to make further investigation when fresh facts come to light. 

21. As observed by us earlier, there was no provision in the CrPC, 1898 which, expressly or by necessary implication, barred the right of the police to further investigate after cognizance of the case had been taken by the Magistrate. Neither Section 173 nor Section 190 lead us to hold that the power of the police to further investigate was exhausted by the Magistrate taking cognizance of the offence. Practice, convenience and preponderance of authority, permitted repeated investigations on discovery of fresh facts. In our view, notwithstanding that a Magistrate had taken cognizance of the offence upon a police report submitted under Section 173 of the 1898 Code, the right of the police to further investigate was not exhausted and the police could exercise such right as often as necessary when fresh information came to light. Where the police desired to make a further investigation, the police could express their regard and respect for the court by seeking its formal permission to make further investigation. 

22. As in the present case, occasions may arise when a second investigation started independently of the first may disclose a wide range of offences including those covered by the first investigation. Where the report of the second investigation is submitted to a Magistrate other than the Magistrate who has already taken cognizance of the first case, it is up to the prosecuting agency or the accused concerned to take necessary action by moving the appropriate superior court to have the two cases tried together. The Magistrates themselves may take action suo motu. In the present case, there is no problem since the earlier case has since been withdrawn by the prosecuting agency. It was submitted to us that the submission of a charge-sheet to the Delhi court and the withdrawal of the case in the Ambala court amounted to an abuse of the process of the court. We do not think that the prosecution acted with any oblique motive. In the charge- sheet filed in the Delhi court, it was expressly mentioned that Mehra was already facing trial in the Ambala Court and he was, therefore, not being sent for trial. In the application made to the Ambala Court under Section 494 CrPC, it was expressly mentioned that a case had been filed in the Delhi Court against Mehra and others and, therefore, it was not necessary to prosecute Mehra in the Ambala court. The Court granted its permission for the withdrawal of the case. Though the investigating agency would have done better if it had informed the Ambala Magistrate and sought his formal permission for the second investigation, we are satisfied that the investigating agency did not act out of any malice. We are also satisfied that there has been no illegality. Both the appeals are, therefore, dismissed.” 

17. In the case of M. Krishna v. State of Karnataka [(1999) 3 SCC 247], this Court took the view that even where the article of charge was similar but for a different period, there was nothing in the Code to debar registration of the second FIR. The Court opined that the FIR was registered for an offence under Sections 13(1)(e) and 13(2) of the Prevention of Corruption Act related to the period 1.8.1978 to 1.4.1989 and the investigation culminated into filing of a report which was accepted by the Court. The second FIR and subsequent proceedings related to a later period which was 1st August, 1978 to 25th July, 1978 under similar charges. It was held that there was no provision which debar the filing of a subsequent FIR. 

18. In the case of T.T. Antony v. State of Kerala [(2001) 6 SCC 181], the Court explained that an information given under sub-Section (1) of Section 154 of the Code is commonly known as the First Information Report (FIR). Though this term is not used in the Code, it is a very important document. The Court concluded that second FIR for the same offence or occurrence giving rise to one or more cognizable offences was not permissible. In this case, the Court discussed the judgments in Ram Lal Narang (supra) and M. Krishna (supra) in some detail, and while quashing the subsequent FIR held as under : 

“23. The right of the police to investigate into a cognizable offence is a statutory right over which the court does not possess any supervisory jurisdiction under CrPC. In Emperor v. Khwaja Nazir Ahmad the Privy Council spelt out the power of the investigation of the police, as follows: 

“In India, as has been shown, there is a statutory right on the part of the police to investigate the circumstances of an alleged cognizable crime without requiring any authority from the judicial authorities, and it would, as Their Lordships think, be an unfortunate result if it should be held possible to interfere with those statutory rights by an exercise of the inherent jurisdiction of the court.” 

24. This plenary power of the police to investigate a cognizable offence is, however, not unlimited. It is subject to certain well-recognised limitations. One of them, is pointed out by the Privy Council, thus: 

“[I] f no cognizable offence is disclosed, and still more if no offence of any kind is disclosed, the police would have no authority to undertake an investigation....” 

25. Where the police transgresses its statutory power of investigation the High Court under Section 482 CrPC or Articles 226/227 of the Constitution and this Court in an appropriate case can interdict the investigation to prevent abuse of the process of the court or otherwise to secure the ends of justice. 

XXX XXX XXX 

35. For the aforementioned reasons, the registration of the second FIR under Section 154 CrPC on the basis of the letter of the Director General of Police as Crime No. 268 of 1997 of Kuthuparamba Police Station is not valid and consequently the investigation made pursuant thereto is of no legal consequence, they are accordingly quashed. We hasten to add that this does not preclude the investigating agency from seeking leave of the Court in Crimes Nos. 353 and 354 of 1994 for making further investigations and filing a further report or reports under Section 173(8) CrPC before the competent Magistrate in the said cases. In this view of the matter, we are not inclined to interfere with the judgment of the High Court under challenge insofar as it relates to quashing of Crime No. 268 of 1997 of Kuthuparamba Police Station against the ASP (R.A. Chandrasekhar); in all other aspects the impugned judgment of the High Court shall stand set aside.” 

19. The judgment of this Court in T.T. Antony (supra) came to be further explained and clarified by a three Judge Bench of this Court in the case of Upkar Singh v. Ved Prakash [(2004) 13 SCC 292], wherein the Court stated as under : 

“17. It is clear from the words emphasised hereinabove in the above quotation, this Court in the case of T.T. Antony v. State of Kerala has not excluded the registration of a complaint in the nature of a counter-case from the purview of the Code. In our opinion, this Court in that case only held that any further complaint by the same complainant or others against the same accused, subsequent to the registration of a case, is prohibited under the Code because an investigation in this regard would have already started and further complaint against the same accused will amount to an improvement on the facts mentioned in the original complaint, hence will be prohibited under Section 162 of the Code. This prohibition noticed by this Court, in our opinion, does not apply to counter- complaint by the accused in the first complaint or on his behalf alleging a different version of the said incident. 

18. This Court in Kari Choudhary v. Sita Devi discussing this aspect of law held: 

“11. Learned counsel adopted an alternative contention that once the proceedings initiated under FIR No. 135 ended in a final report the police had no authority to register a second FIR and number it as FIR No. 208. Of course the legal position is that there cannot be two FIRs against the same accused in respect of the same case. But when there are rival versions in respect of the same episode, they would normally take the shape of two different FIRs and investigation can be carried on under both of them by the same investigating agency. Even that apart, the report submitted to the court styling it as FIR No. 208 of 1998 need be considered as an information submitted to the court regarding the new discovery made by the police during investigation that persons not named in FIR No. 135 are the real culprits. To quash the said proceedings merely on the ground that final report had been laid in FIR No. 135 is, to say the least, too technical. The ultimate object of every investigation is to find out whether the offences alleged have been committed and, if so, who have committed it.” 

(emphasis supplied) 

XXX XXX XXX 

23. Be that as it may, if the law laid down by this Court in T.T. Antony case is to be accepted as holding that a second complaint in regard to the same incident filed as a counter-complaint is prohibited under the Code then, in our opinion, such conclusion would lead to serious consequences. This will be clear from the hypothetical example given hereinbelow i.e. if in regard to a crime committed by the real accused he takes the first opportunity to lodge a false complaint and the same is registered by the jurisdictional police then the aggrieved victim of such crime will be precluded from lodging a complaint giving his version of the incident in question, consequently he will be deprived of his legitimated right to bring the real accused to book. This cannot be the purport of the Code. 

24. We have already noticed that in T.T. Antony case this Court did not consider the legal right of an aggrieved person to file counterclaim, on the contrary from the observations found in the said judgment it clearly indicates that filing a counter- complaint is permissible. 25. In the instant case, it is seen in regard to the incident which took place on 20-5-1995, the appellant and the first respondent herein have lodged separate complaints giving different versions but while the complaint of the respondent was registered by the police concerned, the complaint of the appellant was not so registered, hence on his prayer the learned Magistrate was justified in directing the police concerned to register a case and investigate the same and report back. In our opinion, both the learned Additional Sessions Judge and the High Court erred in coming to the conclusion that the same is hit by Section 161 or 162 of the Code which, in our considered opinion, has absolutely no bearing on the question involved. Section 161 or 162 of the Code does not refer to registration of a case, it only speaks of a statement to be recorded by the police in the course of the investigation and its evidentiary value.” 

20. Somewhat similar view was taken by a Bench of this Court in the case of Rameshchandra Nandlal Parikh v. State of Gujarat [(2006) 1 SCC 732], wherein the Court held that the subsequent FIRs cannot be prohibited on the ground that some other FIR has been filed against the petitioner in respect of other allegations filed against the petitioner. 

21. This Court also had the occasion to deal with the situation where the first FIR was a cryptic one and later on, upon receipt of a proper information, another FIR came to be recorded which was a detailed one. In this case, the court took the view that no exception could be taken to the same being treated as an FIR. In the case of Vikram v. State of Maharashtra (2007) 12 SCC 332, the Court held that it was not impermissible in law to treat the subsequent information report as the First Information Report and act thereupon. In the case of Tapinder Singh v. State of Punjab [(1970) 2 SCC 113] also, this Court examined the question as to whether cryptic, anonymous and oral messages, which do not clearly specify the cognizable offence, can be treated as FIR, and answered the question in the negative. 

22. In matters of complaints, the Court in the case of Shiv Shankar Singh v. State of Bihar (2012) 1 SCC 130 expressed the view that the law does not prohibit filing or entertaining of a second complaint even on the same facts, provided that the earlier complaint has been decided on the basis of insufficient material or has been passed without understanding the nature of the complaint or where the complete facts could not be placed before the court and the applicant came to know of certain facts after the disposal of the first complaint. The Court applied the test of full consideration of the complaints on merits. In paragraph 18, the Court held as under: - 

“18. Thus, it is evident that the law does not prohibit filing or entertaining of the second complaint even on the same facts provided the earlier complaint has been decided on the basis of insufficient material or the order has been passed without understanding the nature of the complaint or the complete facts could not be placed before the court or where the complainant came to know certain facts after disposal of the first complaint which could have tilted the balance in his favour. However, the second complaint would not be maintainable wherein the earlier complaint has been disposed of on full consideration of the case of the complainant on merit.” 

23. The First Information Report is a very important document, besides that it sets the machinery of criminal law in motion. It is a very material document on which the entire case of the prosecution is built. Upon registration of FIR, beginning of investigation in a case, collection of evidence during investigation and formation of the final opinion is the sequence which results in filing of a report under Section 173 of the Code. The possibility that more than one piece of information is given to the police officer in charge of a police station, in respect of the same incident involving one or more than one cognizable offences, cannot be ruled out. Other materials and information given to or received otherwise by the investigating officer would be statements covered under Section 162 of the Code. The Court in order to examine the impact of one or more FIRs has to rationalise the facts and circumstances of each case and then apply the test of ‘sameness’ to find out whether both FIRs relate to the same incident and to the same occurrence, are in regard to incidents which are two or more parts of the same transaction or relate completely to two distinct occurrences. If the answer falls in the first category, the second FIR may be liable to be quashed. However, in case the contrary is proved, whether the version of the second FIR is different and they are in respect of two different incidents/crimes, the second FIR is permissible, This is the view expressed by this Court in the case of Babu Babubhai v. State of Gujarat and Ors. [(2010) 12 SCC 254]. This judgment clearly spells out the distinction between two FIRs relating to the same incident and two FIRs relating to different incident or occurrences of the same incident etc. 

24. To illustrate such a situation, one can give an example of the same group of people committing theft in a similar manner in different localities falling under different jurisdictions. Even if the incidents were committed in close proximity of time, there could be separate FIRs and institution of even one stating that a number of thefts had been committed, would not debar the registration of another FIR. Similarly, riots may break out because of the same event but in different areas and between different people. The registration of a primary FIR which triggered the riots would not debar registration of subsequent FIRs in different areas. However, to the contra, for the same event and offences against the same people, there cannot be a second FIR. This Court has consistently taken this view and even in the case of Chirra Shivraj v. State of Andhra Pradesh [(2010) 14 SCC 444], the Court took the view that there cannot be a second FIR in respect of same offence/event because whenever any further information is received by the investigating agency, it is always in furtherance of the First Information Report. 

25. Now, we should examine the facts of the present case in light of the principles stated supra. The complaint/application under Section 156(3) filed by respondent No. 2 was founded on the condolence meeting which was attended by a large number of persons including the persons named in the complaint. According to respondent No. 2, named persons had given speeches which were communal, provoking and were creating disharmony between the communities, and encouraging people to commit criminal offences rather than to follow the due process of law. The complaint of respondent No. 2 did not relate to any event prior to the holding of the meeting and participation of the stated persons. This complaint was of a general nature and related to various communal riots that occurred subsequent to and as a result of the meeting. Thus, it related to a different case, grievance and alleged commission of offences at the time and subsequent to the holding of the meeting. 

26. The First Information Report 145/2007 lodged by Hazrat son of Bismillah related to burning of a shop prior to holding of a meeting. He categorically stated that he did not know the persons or names of the perpetrators who attacked the shop where he was working. This incident occurred at 6 p.m. as per the records while the meeting itself, as per respondent No. 2 was held after 8 p.m., though on the same date. His report clearly states that when he was going back to his house at about 8.30 p.m., he stopped at the place where the meeting was being held. The FIR registered by Hazrat was against unknown persons and related to a particular event and commission of a particular crime. There was no question of any provocation, conspiracy or attempt by the persons premeditatedly committing the offences which they committed. 

27. As per the FIR, it was an offence committed at random by some unknown persons. The registration of such FIR was neither intended to be nor was it in fact in relation to a matter of larger investigation, or commission of offences, as alleged by the respondent no.2. 

28. Even the offences which are stated to have been committed, and for which the two FIRs were registered in these respective cases were different and distinct. In the complaint filed by Parvez Parwaz, which was registered as a FIR, names of the persons were mentioned and a general investigation was called for, while FIR 145/2007 registered by Hazrat, was against unknown persons for damage of his property, which was for a specific offence, without any other complaint or allegation of any communal instigation or riot. In other words, these were two different FIRs relatable to different occurrences, investigation of one was no way dependent upon the other and they are neither inter-linked nor inter- dependent. They were lodged by different persons in relation to occurrences which are alleged to have occurred at different points of time against different people and for different offences. Requirement of proof in both cases was completely distinct and different. Thus, there was no similarity and the test of similarity would not be satisfied in the present case. Thus, we have no hesitation in coming to the conclusion that lodging of the subsequent FIR was not a second FIR for the same occurrence as stated in FIR 145/2007, and thus, could be treated as a First Information Report for all purposes including investigation in terms of the provisions of the Code. It was not in the form of a statement under Section 162 of the Code. Is an accused entitled to hearing pre-registration of an FIR? 

29. Section 154 of the Code places an unequivocal duty upon the police officer in charge of a police station to register FIR upon receipt of the information that a cognizable offence has been committed. It hardly gives any discretion to the said police officer. The genesis of this provision in our country in this regard is that he must register the FIR and proceed with the investigation forthwith. While the position of law cannot be dispelled in view of the three Judge Bench Judgment of this Court in State of Uttar Pradesh v. Bhagwant Kishore Joshi [AIR 1964 SC 221], a limited discretion is vested in the investigating officer to conduct a preliminary inquiry pre-registration of a FIR as there is absence of any specific prohibition in the Code, express or implied. The subsequent judgments of this Court have clearly stated the proposition that such discretion hardly exists. In fact the view taken is that he is duty bound to register an FIR. Then the question that arises is whether a suspect is entitled to any pre-registration hearing or any such right is vested in the suspect. 

30. The rule of audi alteram partem is subject to exceptions. Such exceptions may be provided by law or by such necessary implications where no other interpretation is possible. Thus rule of natural justice has an application, both under the civil and criminal jurisprudence. The laws like detention and others, specifically provide for post-detention hearing and it is a settled principle of law that application of this doctrine can be excluded by exercise of legislative powers which shall withstand judicial scrutiny. The purpose of the Criminal Procedure Code and the Indian Penal Code is to effectively execute administration of the criminal justice system and protect society from perpetrators of crime. It has a twin purpose; firstly to adequately punish the offender in accordance with law and secondly to ensure prevention of crime. On examination, the scheme of the Criminal Procedure Code does not provide for any right of hearing at the time of registration of the First Information Report. As already noticed, the registration forthwith of a cognizable offence is the statutory duty of a police officer in charge of the police station. The very purpose of fair and just investigation shall stand frustrated if pre- registration hearing is required to be granted to a suspect. It is not that the liberty of an individual is being taken away or is being adversely affected, except by the due process of law. Where the Officer In-charge of a police station is informed of a heinous or cognizable offence, it will completely destroy the purpose of proper and fair investigation if the suspect is required to be granted a hearing at that stage and is not subjected to custody in accordance with law. There would be the pre-dominant possibility of a suspect escaping the process of law. The entire scheme of the Code unambiguously supports the theory of exclusion of audi alteram partem pre-registration of an FIR. Upon registration of an FIR, a person is entitled to take recourse to the various provisions of bail and anticipatory bail to claim his liberty in accordance with law. It cannot be said to be a violation of the principles of natural justice for two different reasons. Firstly, the Code does not provide for any such right at that stage. Secondly, the absence of such a provision clearly demonstrates the legislative intent to the contrary and thus necessarily implies exclusion of hearing at that stage. This Court in the case of Union of India v. W.N. Chadha (1993) Suppl. (4) SCC 260 clearly spelled out this principle in paragraph 98 of the judgment that reads as under: 

“98. If prior notice and an opportunity of hearing are to be given to an accused in every criminal case before taking any action against him, such a procedure would frustrate the proceedings, obstruct the taking of prompt action as law demands, defeat the ends of justice and make the provisions of law relating to the investigation lifeless, absurd and self- defeating. Further, the scheme of the relevant statutory provisions relating to the procedure of investigation does not attract such a course in the absence of any statutory obligation to the contrary.” 

31. In the case of Samaj Parivartan Samuday v. State of Karnataka (2012) 7 SCC 407, a three-Judge Bench of this Court while dealing with the right of hearing to a person termed as ‘suspect’ or ‘likely offender’ in the report of the CEC oserved that there was no right of hearing. Though the suspects were already interveners in the writ petition, they were heard. Stating the law in regard to the right of hearing, the Court held as under: 

“50. There is no provision in CrPC where an investigating agency must provide a hearing to the affected party before registering an FIR or even before carrying on investigation prior to registration of case against the suspect. CBI, as already noticed, may even conduct pre-registration inquiry for which notice is not contemplated under the provisions of the Code, the Police Manual or even as per the precedents laid down by this Court. It is only in those cases where the Court directs initiation of investigation by a specialised agency or transfer investigation to such agency from another agency that the Court may, in its discretion, grant hearing to the suspect or affected parties. However, that also is not an absolute rule of law and is primarily a matter in the judicial discretion of the Court. This question is of no relevance to the present case as we have already heard the interveners." 

32. While examining the above-stated principles in conjunction with the scheme of the Code, particularly Section 154 and 156(3) of the Code, it is clear that the law does not contemplate grant of any personal hearing to a suspect who attains the status of an accused only when a case is registered for committing a particular offence or the report under Section 173 of the Code is filed terming the suspect an accused that his rights are affected in terms of the Code. Absence of specific provision requiring grant of hearing to a suspect and the fact that the very purpose and object of fair investigation is bound to be adversely affected if hearing is insisted upon at that stage, clearly supports the view that hearing is not any right of any suspect at that stage. 

33. Even in the cases where report under Section 173(2) of the Code is filed in the Court and investigation records the name of a person in column (2), or even does not name the person as an accused at all, the Court in exercise of its powers vested under Section 319 can summon the person as an accused and even at that stage of summoning, no hearing is contemplated under the law. 

34. Of course, situation will be different where the complaint or an application is directed against a particular person for specific offence and the Court under Section 156 dismisses such an application. In that case, the higher court may have to grant hearing to the suspect before it directs registration of a case against the suspect for a specific offence. We must hasten to clarify that there is no absolute indefeasible right vested in a suspect and this would have to be examined in the facts and circumstances of a given case. But one aspect is clear that at the stage of registration of a FIR or passing a direction under Section 156(3), the law does not contemplate grant of any hearing to a suspect. Coming to the facts of the present case, the complaint under Section 156 had named certain persons, but it had also referred to a number of other persons and the investigation prayed for was of a generic nature and not against a particular person for commission of any specified offence. The substance and nature of the allegations made in the complaint were such that it was not possible to state with certainty as to how the offences were committed and by whom. Thus, the Court was called upon to pass an order directing general investigation of very wide scope. It was to be investigated, as to who besides the named persons gave speeches, incited the public at large, what its impact was on the violence as alleged and who were the persons who had participated in the alleged communal violence. Thus, it was not a case where one or more persons committed the murder of someone and clearly fell under Section 302 IPC. The merit of the case was not disclosed by the learned Magistrate while passing the order dated 29th July, 2008 under Section 156(3) of the Code. The Court did not analyze at all the ingredients of an offence, participation of persons and their other effects. The court primarily proceeded on a legal issue without reference to the facts of the case stating that since one FIR had been recorded i.e. FIR No. 145/2007, it was not permissible to register second FIR and direct investigation thereof. This view, as already discussed above was, in fact and in law, not sustainable. The Court had not recorded any finding in favour of the appellant to the effect that she was not present, she had not participated or that she was in no way connected with communal violence. We must not be understood to state that the appellant was involved in any manner in the commission of the said crime. This has to be investigated as directed by the court in accordance with law and that too without prejudice to the rights and contentions of the appellant. The grievance of non- grant of hearing in any case loses its significance as we have heard the appellant at some length and have dealt with the contentions raised before us. In the facts of the present case, thus, no prejudice is caused to the appellant. Power of the Magistrate under Section 156(3) 

35. Investigation into commission of a crime can be commenced by two different modes. First, where the police officer registers an FIR in relation to commission of a cognizable offence and commences investigation in terms of Chapter XII of the Code, the other is when a Magistrate competent to take cognizance in terms of Section 190 may order an investigation into commission of a crime as per the provisions of that Chapter XIV. Section 156 primarily deals with the powers of a police office to investigate a cognizable case. While dealing with the application or passing an order under Section 156(3), the Magistrate does not take cognizance of an offence. When the Magistrate had applied his mind only for order an investigation under Section 156(3) of the Code or issued a warrant for the said purpose, he is not said to have taken cognizance. It is an order in the nature of a preemptory reminder or intimation to the police to exercise its primary duty and power of investigation in terms of Section 151 of the Code. Such an investigation embraces the continuity of the process which begins with collection of evidence under Section 156 and ends with the final report either under Section 159 or submission of chargesheet under Section 173 of the Code. Refer Mona Pawar v. High Court of Allahabad [2011) 3 SCC 496]. In the case of Dilawar Singh v. State of Delhi [2007) 9 SCR 695], this Court as well stated the principle that investigation begin in furtherance to an order under Section 156(3) is not anyway different from the kind of investigation commenced in terms of Section 156(1). They both terminate with filing of a report under Section 173 of the Code. The Court signified the point that when a Magistrate orders investigation under Chapter XII he does so before taking cognizance of an offence. The court in paragraph 17 of the judgment held as under:- 

“The clear position therefore is that any Judicial Magistrate, before taking cognizance of the offence, can order investigation under Section 156(3) of the Code. If he does so, he is not to examine the complainant on oath because he was not taking cognizance of any offence therein. For the purpose of enabling the police to start investigation it is open to the Magistrate to direct the police to register an FIR. There is nothing illegal in doing so. After all registration of an FIR involves only the process of entering the substance of the information relating to the commission of the cognizable offence in a book kept by the officer in charge of the police station as indicated in Section 154 of the Code. Even if a Magistrate does not say in so many words while directing investigation under Section 156(3) of the Code that an FIR should be registered, it is the duty of the officer in charge of the police station to register the FIR regarding the cognizable offence disclosed by the complainant because that police officer could take further steps contemplated in Chapter XII of the Code only thereafter.” 

36. Caution in this process had been introduced by this Court vide its judgment in the case of Tula Ram & Ors. v. Kishore Singh [1977) 4 SCC 459] where it was held that the Magistrate can order the police to investigate the complaint, but it has no power to compel the police to submit a charge sheet on a final report being submitted by the police. 

37. Still another situation that can possibly arise is that the Magistrate is competent to treat even a complaint termed as an application and pass orders under Section 156(3), but where it takes cognizance, there it would have to be treated as a regular complaint to be tried in accordance with the provisions of Section 200 onwards falling under Chapter XV of the Code. There also the Magistrate is vested with the power to direct investigation to be made by a police officer or by such other person as he thinks fit for the purposes of deciding whether or not there is sufficient ground for proceeding. This power is restricted and is not as wide as the power vested under Section 156(3) of the Code. The power of the Magistrate under Section 156(3) of the Code to order investigation by the police have not been touched or affected by Section 202 because these powers are exercised even before the cognizance is taken. In other words, Section 202 would apply only to cases where Magistrate has taken cognizance and chooses to enquire into the complaint either himself or through any other agency. But there may be circumstances where the Magistrate, before taking cognizance of the case himself, chooses to order a pure and simple investigation under Section 156(3) of the Code. These cases would fall in different class. This view was also taken by a Bench of this Court in the case of Rameshbhai Pandurao Hedau v. State of Gujarat [(2010) 4 SCC 185]. The distinction between these two powers had also been finally stated in the judgment of this Court in the case of Srinivas Gundluri & Ors. v. SEPCO Electric Power Construction Corporation & Ors. [(2010) 8 SCC 206] where the Court stated that to proceed under Section 156(3) of the Code, what is required is a bare reading of the complaint and if it discloses a cognizable offence, then the Magistrate instead of applying his mind to the complaint for deciding whether or not there is sufficient ground for proceeding, may direct the police for investigation. But where it takes cognizance and decides as to whether or not there exists a ground for proceeding any further, then it is a case squarely falling under Chapter XV of the Code. 

38. Thus, the Magistrate exercises a very limited power under Section 156(3) and so is its discretion. It does not travel into the arena of merit of the case if such case was fit to proceed further. This distinction has to be kept in mind by the court in different kinds of cases. In the present case, the learned Magistrate while passing the order dated 29th July, 2008, had not dealt with the case on merits, but on a legal assumption that it was not a case to direct investigation because investigation was already going on under FIR No. 45/2007. Once it is held as done by us above, there were two different and distinct offences committed by different persons and there was no commonality of transaction between the two. We do not find any error of jurisdiction in the order of the High Court requiring the learned Magistrate to deal with the cases afresh and pass an order under Section 156(3) of the Code. Once, that view is taken, the direction passed by the learned Magistrate directing further investigation under Section 156(3) can also not be complied with though there is no specific challenge to that order before us. 

39. Thus, we are called upon to deal with from the point of view as to whether the investigating agency should be restrained from conducting further investigation or there should be stay of such investigation. 

40. It is true that law recognizes common trial or a common FIR being registered for one series of acts so connected together as to form the same transaction as contemplated under Section 220 of the Code. There cannot be any straight jacket formula, but this question has to be answered on the facts of each case. This Court in the case of Mohan Baitha v. State of Bihar [(2001) 4 SCC 350], held that the expression ‘same transaction’ from its very nature is incapable of exact definition. It is not intended to be interpreted in any artificial or technical sense. Common sense in the ordinary use of language must decide whether or not in the very facts of a case, it can be held to be one transaction. 

41. It is not possible to enunciate any formula of universal application for the purpose of determining whether two or more acts constitute the same transaction. Such things are to be gathered from the circumstances of a given case indicating proximity of time, unity or proximity of place, continuity of action, commonality of purpose or design. Where two incidents are of different times with involvement of different persons, there is no commonality and the purpose thereof different and they emerge from different circumstances, it will not be possible for the Court to take a view that they form part of the same transaction and therefore, there could be a common FIR or subsequent FIR could not be permitted to be registered or there could be common trial. 

42. Similarly, for several offences to be part of the same transaction, the test which has to be applied is whether they are so related to one another in point of purpose or of cause and effect, or as principal and subsidiary, so as to result in one continuous action. Thus, where there is a commonality of purpose or design, where there is a continuity of action, then all those persons involved can be accused of the same or different offences “committed in the course of the same transaction”. 

43. For the reasons afore-stated, we find no jurisdictional or other error in the judgment of the High Court and that leads us to direct the dismissal of this appeal.